Compositions and methods for regulating abscisic acid-induced closure of plant stomata

ABSTRACT

A novel gene, AAPK, is disclosed. Loss of function of the protein encoded by AAPK is associated with reduced sensitivity to abscisic acid-induced stomatal closure in plants. Also disclosed are transgenic plants and mutants having altered sensitivity to abscisic acid-mediated transpiration and other desirable agronomic features. The regulation of transpiration provided by the present invention is different from that of previously described mechanisms to control transpiration in plants.

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Nos.60/142,039, filed Jul. 1, 1999, 60/176,245, filed Jan. 14, 2000 and60/192,499, filed Mar. 28, 2000, the entireties of which areincorporated by reference herein.

Pursuant to 35 U.S.C. §202(c), it is acknowledged that the U.S.Government has certain rights in the invention described herein, whichwas made in part with funds from the National Science Foundation, GrantNos. MCB-9316319 and MCB-9874438.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the field of molecular biology ofplants. More specifically, it relates to the regulation of gas exchangeand transpirational water loss in plants possessing stomata.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Various scientific and scholarly articles are referred to throughout thespecification. These articles are incorporated by reference herein todescribe the state of the art to which this invention pertains.

In terrestrial plants, water is transported, from the roots to theleaves, down a water potential gradient from the soil to the air.Transpiration, or loss of water from the leaves, helps create loweredosmotic potential in the leaves, effectively drawing water from thexylem to the mesophyll cells into the air spaces in the leaves.Estimates are that 90% or more of the water taken up by plants is lostto the air via transpiration.

Transpirational loss of water by evaporation occurs mainly through thepores, called stomata, primarily located in the lower epidermis of theleaves. Each stoma is surrounded by two guard cells, which control theopening and closure of the stomata by their relative turgor pressure.The cell wall properties of guard cells allow them to deform such thatwhen the guard cells develop turgor pressure, the stoma is opened, butwhen the guard cells lose turgor, the stoma closes.

The rate of evaporation of water from the air spaces of the leaf to theoutside air depends on the water potential gradient between the leaf andthe outside air. Environmental factors which directly influence theaperture of the plant's stomata affect its transpiration rate. Suchfactors include light conditions, relative humidity of the air,temperature, water status of the plant, CO₂ concentration, relativeconcentration of certain ions, and concentration of abscisic acid (ABA).

Abscisic acid is a multifunctional phytohormone involved in a variety ofimportant protective functions including bud dormancy, seed dormancyand/or maturation, abscission of leaves and fruits, and response to awide variety of biological stressors (e.g. cold, heat, salinity, anddrought). It is also responsible for regulating stomatal closure by amechanism independent of CO₂ concentration.

ABA is synthesized rapidly in response to water stress in plants, and isstored in the guard cells. During drought, ABA alteration of guard cellion transport promotes stomatal closure and also prevents stomatalopening, thus reducing transpirational water loss. At the biochemicallevel, it is believed that the hormone sets off a variety of biologicalmessages that require or include a protein phopsphorylation cascade. Onemember of this cascade was identified in guard cells of Vicia faba as anABA-activated, calcium-independent protein kinase. (Li & Assmann, PlantCell 8: 2359-2368, 1996; Mori & Muto, Plant Physiol. 113: 833-839,1997). The kinase was identified by SDS polyacrylamide gelelectrophoresis as a 48 kDa protein, but was not further isolated orcharacterized. It exhibited ABA-activated autophosphorylation and kinaseactivity.

Stomata simultaneously regulate both the transpiration of water and theexchange of gases for photosynthesis. Open stomata allow for maximum gasexchange rate so that photosynthetic reactions may proceed more quickly,however under these conditions, water loss will be maximal. On the otherhand, closed stomata minimize transpirational water loss but alsosubstantially reduce photosynthetic reaction rates. Paradoxically, theplant undergoes a continual trade-off between maximizing CO₂ uptake forcarbon fixation, and minimizing desiccating water loss. Thus, theability to control stomatal opening and closure could be of tremendousagronomic significance.

Several studies in the literature provide examples of the benefits ofselecting for increased stomatal conductance under certain conditions.One system that has been studied extensively comprises eight lines ofPima cotton (Gossypium barbadense) obtained over 40 years of selectionand showing a 3-fold range in yield. These and additional studies haveconfirmed the association of higher conductance with higher yield, andits genetic basis, in both Pima and Upland (Gossypium hirsutum) cotton.A similar correlation of increased yield, increased stomatalconductance, and decreased canopy temperatures has also been observed ina historical series of bread wheat cultivars. Taken collectively, thisbody or research suggests that selection or genetic engineering ofplants to achieve increased stomatal conductance may be of widespreadutility for crop plants grown under irrigation under supra-optimaltemperatures.

The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) causes stomatal closure duringperiods of reduced water availability by reducing the ion and watercontent of the pair of guard cells that flanks each stoma. However, evenwhen plants are well-watered, ABA still limits stomatal aperture, asshown by the fact that mutants of tomato and Arabidopsis that aredeficient in either ABA-production or ABA-sensing have larger stomatalapertures than wild-type plants, even when water is plentiful. In otherwords, the ABA response is protective; always somewhat limiting to waterloss, but thus unavoidably, also limiting to CO₂ uptake. ThisABA-mediated limitation of water loss is of no benefit however, to thegrower who irrigates crops so that they are always well-watered. Forthose crops, such as many of the agricultural crops that are grown inarid or semi-arid regions, if this endogenous ABA-response of thestomata were “turned off”, crop yield could be increased, or the timefor the plant to reach maturity decreased by removing the limits onincreased CO₂ uptake and fixation.

Many crops, for example feed corn and wheat, are dried in the fieldbefore harvest. Other crops, such as tobacco and dried fruits such asraisins and prunes, are dried immediately post-harvest. It would beadvantageous to growers to be able to accelerate or control the rate ofcrop drying.

For example, at the end of the growing season, it might be advantageousto dry the plants as quickly as possible, to minimize exposure toadverse weather conditions. However, water stress inevitably triggersABA production/redistribution in the plant, leading to stomatal closure,which slows the rate of water loss, thus slowing the rate of cropdrying. Therefore, it would be advantageous to growers if thisABA-triggered stomatal closure response could be prevented orcontrolled.

In other cases, post-harvest, for many fruits, vegetables, and forcut-flowers, it is advantageous for the produce to dry out as slowly aspossible, to retain freshness during transport, distribution, andpurchase of the product. In these situations, it would be advantageousif the ABA-induced stomatal closure response could be enhanced. Thiscould significantly extend the shelf life of the product.

The theoretical solution to the problems posed above is for growers tobe able to precisely control the plant's transpiration viaABA-responsiveness of the guard cells/stomata. Ideally this controlshould be:

-   1. specific to the Guard Cells. It should not disrupt the many other    effects of ABA on plant growth and development.-   2. specific to ABA. There are many other stimuli that guard cells    respond to in the control of stomatal aperture, for example, light    and decreased intracellular concentrations of CO₂ drive stomatal    opening, and conversely, darkness and high CO₂ concentrations drive    stomatal closure. For crops under irrigation for example, the grower    would still want the stomata to close in response to darkness,    because in darkness there is no photosynthesis anyway, and open    stomata during the night would simply waste irrigation water and    thus money.-   3. Inducible, Titratable, and Reversible. To be of greatest utility,    the grower would want to be able to control “when” and “how much”    the guard cells respond to ABA. Ideally, the grower would be able to    open and close the stomata depending on the prevailing environmental    conditions and desired results for his crop.

In present practice, growers have only limited control of rates of waterloss from plants, mainly by controlling irrigation regimens in thefield, and controlling environmental conditions during shipping,handling and storage of the product. By capitalizing on the presentinvention, growers could choose when plants would retain their maximumhydrated status (e.g. during times of water restriction, or for shippingof fresh produce), and when plants could be induced to dry out morequickly (e.g. as required for crops that are dried in the field beforeharvest).

Mutants have been identified in Arabidopsis, which display reduced ratesof ABA production (aba mutants; Koornneefet al. 1982, Theor. Appl.Genet. 61:385-393) or ABA sensing (abi mutants; Koornneefet al. 1984Physiol. Plant. 61:377-383). While these plants exhibit increased ratesof water loss, the mutations are pleiotropic and this is a disadvantage.For example, the aba and abi mutants have reduced seed dormancy, and sothe viability of the seed is likely to be reduced, a severe problemlimiting any commercial application.

The isolation of novel mutants and genes that encode alteredABA-mediation of transpirational water loss will broaden the range ofoptions for growers. It would be particularly advantageous to isolatemutants or genes involved in altered ABA-mediation of transpirationwithout spontaneously occurring abnormal responses to other roles of ABAor abnormal responses to factors such as light levels and concentrationsof CO₂. Novel regulatory mutants are likely to have distinct inductionof unique subsets of genes. The isolation of mutants will yield thecritical gene(s) involved with altered ABA-mediation of transpiration,which can be used to transgenically transfer the novel trait to otherspecies.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Provided in the present invention is a novel nucleic acid molecule(referred herein as AAPK), which is associated with regulation oftranspiration by the hormone abscisic acid (ABA) in plants. Theinvention further provides transgenic plants and mutants having modifiedABA-mediated stomatal closure. In these plants, ABA-mediated stomatalclosure is modified in a manner that is independent of CO₂- andlight-mediated responses of transpiration, as measured by changes instomatal aperture.

According to one aspect of the present invention, a nucleic acidmolecule encoding an ABA-activated protein kinase, AAPK, is provided. An-exemplary AAPK-encoding nucleic acid molecule of the invention is thatof Vicia faba, a food crop of major importance in the Middle East. Alsoexemplified are homologs of the gene in Arabidopsis thaliana. Theinvention farther provides homologs of the exemplified AAPK, having alevel of nucleotide sequence or amino acid sequence identity with theexemplified AAPK nucleic acids or encoded AAPK proteins, specifically atcertain regions of the coding sequence, that clearly distinguish thehomologs as AAPK homologs, as opposed to other kinases. Preferably,these homologs comprise nucleotide or amino acid sequences at least 60%,preferably 67%, more preferably 70% and even more preferably 80%identical to the Vicia faba and Arabidopsis AAPK nucleic acid and AAPKamino acid sequences set forth herein.

Also provided in accordance with the present invention is a disruptedgene product of the AAPK gene. In a preferred embodiment, the disruptedgene product comprises lost or reduced activity of the AAPK protein.Reduction in amount or activity of AAPK in plants results in decreasedsensitivity of the plants to ABA-induced stomatal closure, but does notaffect the plants's sensitivity to dark- or CO₂-induced stomatalclosure.

According to another aspect of the invention, an oligonucleotidemolecule of at least 15 nucleotides in length, preferably at least 20nucleotides in length, and most preferably at least 30 nucleotides inlength, that is identical in sequence to a portion of an AAPK nucleicacid, is provided. In a preferred embodiment, the invention provides anucleic acid molecule of at least 15, preferably 20, and most preferably30 or more nucleotides in length, that is identical to or complementaryto a consecutive 15, 20 or 30 nucleotide portion, respectively, of thesequence set out in one of SEQ ID NOS:1, 3 or 6.

According to other aspects of the invention, an isolated polypeptideproduced by expression of a nucleic acid molecule of the invention isprovided. Also featured are antibodies immunologically specific for sucha polypeptide.

According to another aspect of the invention, a vector for transforminga plant cell, comprising a nucleic acid molecule of the invention, isprovided. Also featured are plant cells transformed with the vector, andintact fertile plants regenerated from the plant cells. It will beappreciated by persons of skill in the art, that various portions ofsuch genetically altered plants are also encompassed by the presentinvention. These include, but are not limited to, roots, modified roots(e.g., tubers), stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds, and componentsthereof, e.g., extracts or oils.

According to another aspect of the invention, a genetically alteredplant is provided, which possesses decreased sensitivity to ABA-inducedstomatal closure as compared with an equivalent but unaltered plant.These genetically altered plants contain an AAPK that is largelynonfunctional or absent. In one embodiment, the plant is produced bysubjecting a population of plants to mutagenesis and selecting amutagenized plant wherein the AAPK is largely nonfunctional or absent.In a preferred embodiment, the plant is produced by transforming cellsof the plant with a transgene that causes the plant's endogenous AAPK tobecome largely nonfunctional or absent, and regenerating the plant fromthe transformed cell. In a particularly preferred embodiment, expressionof the transgene is inducible.

According to another aspect of the invention, a genetically alteredplant possessing increased sensitivity to ABA-induced stomatal closureas compared with an equivalent but unaltered plant, is provided. Plantsof this type contain an AAPK that is increased in amount or activity ascompared with the unaltered plant. In one embodiment, these plants areproduced by subjecting a population of plants to mutagenesis andselecting a mutagenized plant wherein the AAPK is largely nonfunctionalor absent. In a preferred embodiment, the plants are produced bytransforming cells of the plant with a transgene that causes the plant'sendogenous AAPK to become largely nonfunctional or absent, andregenerating the plant from the transformed cells. In a particularlypreferred embodiment, expression of the transgene is inducible.

Another aspect of the invention features a method to increasetranspiration in a plant. The method comprises reducing or preventingfunction of an AAPK in guard cells of the plant, thereby reducingsensitivity of the plant to ABA-induced stomatal closure, resulting inthe increased transpiration. Conversely, a method is provided todecrease transpiration in a plant, comprising increasing function ofAAPK in guard cells of the plant, thereby increasing sensitivity of theplant to ABA-induced stomatal closure, resulting in decreasedtranspiration.

Other features and advantages of the present invention will be betterunderstood by reference to the drawings, detailed description andexamples that follow.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Alignment of the deduced AAPK amino acid sequence with those ofhomologous protein kinases. GenBank accession numbers for the nucleicacid molecules encoding the displayed amino acid sequences are: AAPK(AF186020), Arabidopsis Atpk (L05562, S71172), tobacco WAPK (AF032465),soybean SPK-4 (L38855), rice REK (AB002109), ice plant MK9 (Z26846), andwheat PKABA1 (M94726). Sequence ID Numbers for the displayed sequencesare as follows: AAPK is SEQ ID NO:2 (encoded by SEQ ID NO:1); Atpk isSEQ ID NO:4 (encoded by SEQ ID NO:3); WAPK is SEQ ID NO: 11; SPK-4 isSEQ ID NO:12; REK is SEQ ID NO:13; MK9 is SEQ ID NO:14; PKABA1 is SEQ IDNO: 10 (encoded by SEQ ID NO:9). Amino acids are highlighted when thereare at least four identical residues among the seven sequences.Conserved subdomains of the protein kinase family are indicated by romannumerals. Peptide sequences obtained by tandem mass spectrometry aremarked by lines. Peptide regions used for designing degenerate PCRprimers are indicated by arrows. Sequences were aligned by the Clustalmethod in MegAlign (DNASTAR, Madison, Wis.). Numbers indicate amino acidpositions.

FIG. 2. Alignment of the deduced amino acid sequence of AAPK from Viciafaba (SEQ ID NO:2) with the amino acid sequence of a homologous proteinkinase from Arabidopsis thaliana (SEQ ID NO:5). Query sequence=AAPK (GI6739629), Length=349 amino acids. Subject sequence=A. thaliana proteinkinase, Length=357 amino acids [GenBank Accession Number CAA19877 (GI3297819)]. Comparison was done using the Blast 2 alignment program atNCBI, with following default parameters: Matrix: BLOSUTM62, GapPenalties: Existence: 11, Extension: 1. Identities=270/348 (77%),Positives=311/348 (88%), Gaps=1/348 (0%). The sequence shown between theQuery and the Subject sequences shows the consensus sequence. A letterindicates identity, a ‘+’ indicates a similarity, while a blank spaceindicates the two sequences are different at that residue.

FIG. 3. Alignment of the deduced amino acid sequence of AAPK from Viciafaba (SEQ ID NO:2) with the deduced amino acid sequence from a geneencoding a homologous protein kinase from Arabidopsis thaliana (SEQ IDNO:7). Query sequence=AAPK (GI 6739629), Length=349 amino acids. Subjectsequence=deduced amino acid sequence from A. thaliana L05561 clone,Length=362 amino acids [GenBank Accession Number L05561 (GI 166817)].Comparison was done using the Blast 2 alignment program at NCBI, withfollowing default parameters: Matrix: BLOSUM62, Gap Penalties:Existence: 11, Extension: 1. Identities=273/353 (77%), Positives=318/353(89%), Gaps=4/353 (1%). The sequence shown between the Query and theSubject sequences shows the consensus sequence. A letter indicatesidentity, a ‘+’ indicates a similarity, while a blank space indicatesthe two sequences are different at that residue.

FIG. 4. Alignment of the deduced amino acid sequence of AAPK from Viciafaba (SEQ ID NO:2) with the amino acid sequence of a homolog, ProteinKinase SPK-2, from Arabidopsis thaliana (SEQ ID NO:8). Querysequence=AAPK (GI 6739629), Length=349 amino acids. Subjectsequence=amino acid sequence from A. thaliana, Length=362 amino acids[GenBank Accession Number S56718 (GI 1362002)]. Comparison was doneusing the Blast 2 alignment program at NCBI, with following defaultparameters: Matrix: BLOSUM62, Gap Penalties: Existence: 11,Extension: 1. Identities=273/353 (77%), Positives=318/353 (89%),Gaps=4/353 (1%). The sequence shown between the Query and the Subjectsequences shows the consensus sequence. A letter indicates identity, a‘+’ indicates a similarity, while a blank space indicates the twosequences are different at that residue.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. Definitions

Various terms relating to the biological molecules of the presentinvention are used hereinabove and also throughout the specificationsand claims.

With respect to the genotypes of the invention, the term “AAPK” is usedto designate the naturally-occurring or wild-type genotype. Thisgenotype has the phenotype of naturally-occurring sensitivity to theeffects of ABA. Where used hereinabove and throughout the specificationsand claims, the term “AAPK” refers to the protein product of the AAPKgene.

In reference to the mutants of the invention, the term “null mutant” or“loss-of-function mutant” is used to designate an organism or genomicDNA sequence with a mutation that causes the product of the gene ofinterest to be non-functional or largely absent. Such mutations mayoccur in the coding and/or regulatory regions of the gene of interest,and may be changes of individual residues, or insertions or deletions ofregions of nucleic acids. These mutations may also occur in the codingand/or regulatory regions of other genes which may regulate or controlthe gene of interest and/or its encoded gene product so as to cause saidgene product to be non-functional or largely absent.

With reference to certain of the DNA constructs of the invention, theterms “pGFP”, “pAAPK-GFP” and “pAAPK(K43A)-GFP” refer to constructs madefrom the green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression vector, pGFP, whichallows cells transformed with the pGFP to express the readily-detectedgreen fluorescent protein. Where used herein, “pAAPK-GFP” refers to apGFP expression vector with the sequence encoding AAPK inserted upstreamof and in-frame with the sequence encoding the GFP, such that bothproteins can be expressed in cells transformed with this construct.Where used herein, “pAAPK(K43A)-GFP” refers to a pGFP expression vectorwith the sequence encoding an AAPK, modified such that the lysineresidue at position 43 in the ATP binding site is changed to an alanine,inserted upstream of and in-frame with the sequence encoding the GFP,such that both proteins can be expressed in cells transformed with thisconstruct.

With reference to nucleic acids of the invention, the term “isolatednucleic acid” is sometimes used. This term, when applied to genomic DNA,refers to a DNA molecule that is separated from sequences with which itis immediately contiguous (in the 5′ and 3′ directions) in thenaturally-occurring genome of the organism from which it was derived.For example, the “isolated nucleic acid” may comprise a DNA moleculeinserted into a vector, such as a plasmid or virus vector, or integratedinto the genomic DNA of a procaryote or eukaryote. An “isolated nucleicacid molecule” may also comprise a cDNA molecule or a synthetic DNAmolecule.

With respect to RNA molecules of the invention, the term “isolatednucleic acid” primarily refers to an RNA molecule encoded by an isolatedDNA molecule as defined above. Alternatively, the term may refer to anRNA molecule that has been sufficiently separated from RNA moleculeswith which it would be associated in its natural state (i.e., in cellsor tissues), such that it exists in a “substantially pure” form.

Nucleic acid sequences and amino acid sequences can be compared usingcomputer programs that align the similar sequences of the nucleic oramino acids thus define the differences. In preferred methodologies, theBLAST programs (NCBI) and parameters used therein are employed to alignnucleotide and amino acid sequences. However, equivalent alignments andsimilarity/identity assessments can be obtained through the use of anystandard alignment software. For instance, the DNAstar system (Madison,Wis.) may be used to align sequence fragments of genomic or other DNAsequences. Alternatively, GCG Wisconsin Package version 9.1, availablefrom the Genetics Computer Group in Madison, Wis. and the defaultparameters used (gap creation penalty=12, gap extension penalty=4) bythat program may also be used to compare sequence identity andsimilarity.

The term “substantially the same” refers to nucleic acid or amino acidsequences having sequence variation that do not materially affect thenature of the protein (i.e. the structure, stability characteristicsand/or biological activity of the protein). With particular reference tonucleic acid sequences, the term “substantially the same” is intended torefer to the coding region and to conserved sequences governingexpression, and refers primarily to degenerate codons encoding the sameamino acid, or alternate codons encoding conservative substitute aminoacids in the encoded polypeptide. With reference to amino acidsequences, the term “substantially the same” refers generally toconservative substitutions and/or variations in regions of thepolypeptide not involved in determination of structure or function.

The terms “percent identical” and “percent similar” are also used hereinin comparisons among amino acid and nucleic acid sequences. Whenreferring to amino acid sequences, “percent identical” refers to thepercent of the amino acids of the subject amino acid sequence that havebeen matched to identical amino acids in the compared amino acidsequence by a sequence analysis program. “Percent similar” refers to thepercent of the amino acids of the subject amino acid sequence that havebeen matched to identical or conserved amino acids. Conserved aminoacids are those which differ in structure but are similar in physicalproperties such that the exchange of one for another would notappreciably change the tertiary structure of the resulting protein.Conservative substitutions are defined by Taylor (1986, J. Theor. Biol.119:205). When referring to nucleic acid molecules, “percent identical”refers to the percent of the nucleotides of the subject nucleic acidsequence that have been matched to identical nucleotides by a sequenceanalysis program.

With respect to protein, the term “isolated protein” or “isolated andpurified protein” is sometimes used herein. This term refers primarilyto a protein produced by expression of an isolated nucleic acid moleculeof the invention. Alternatively, this term may refer to a protein whichhas been sufficiently separated from other proteins with which it wouldnaturally be associated, so as to exist in “substantially pure” form. Inthis regard, “isolated” or “isolated and purified” also refers to itsseparation or removal from a chromatography column matrix or a gel, suchas a polyacrylamide gel. That is, a polypeptide that has been separatedby chromatography or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, but is noteluted from the matrix or gel, is not considered “isolated” or “isolatedand purified”.

With respect to antibodies of the invention, the terms “immunologicallyspecific” or “specific” refer to antibodies that bind to one or moreepitopes of a protein of interest, but which do not substantiallyrecognize and bind other molecules in a sample containing a mixedpopulation of antigenic biological molecules.

With respect to single-stranded nucleic acid molecules, the term“specifically hybridizing” refers to the association between twosingle-stranded nucleic acid molecules of sufficiently complementarysequence to permit such hybridization under pre-determined conditionsgenerally used in the art (sometimes termed “substantiallycomplementary”). In particular, the term refers to hybridization of anoligonucleotide with a substantially complementary sequence containedwithin a single-stranded DNA or RNA molecule, to the substantialexclusion of hybridization of the oligonucleotide with single-strandednucleic acids of non-complementary sequence.

A “coding sequence” or “coding region” refers to a nucleic acid moleculehaving sequence information necessary to produce a gene product, whenthe sequence is expressed.

The term “operably linked” or “operably inserted” means that theregulatory sequences necessary for expression of the coding sequence areplaced in a nucleic acid molecule in the appropriate positions relativeto the coding sequence so as to enable expression of the codingsequence. This same definition is sometimes applied to the arrangementof other transcription control elements (e.g. enhancers) in anexpression vector.

Transcriptional and translational control sequences are DNA regulatorysequences, such as promoters, enhancers, polyadenylation signals,terminators, and the like, that provide for the expression of a codingsequence in a host cell.

The terms “promoter”, “promoter region” or “promoter sequence” refergenerally to transcriptional regulatory regions of a gene, which may befound at the 5′ or 3′ side of the coding region, or within the codingregion, or within introns. Typically, a promoter is a DNA regulatoryregion capable of binding RNA polymerase in a cell and initiatingtranscription of a downstream (3′ direction) coding sequence. Thetypical 5′ promoter sequence is bounded at its 3′ terminus by thetranscription initiation site and extends upstream (5′ direction) toinclude the minimum number of bases or elements necessary to initiatetranscription at levels detectable above background. Within the promotersequence is a transcription initiation site (conveniently defined bymapping with nuclease S1), as well as protein binding domains (consensussequences) responsible for the binding of RNA polymerase.

A “vector” is a replicon, such as plasmid, phage, cosmid, or virus towhich another nucleic acid segment may be operably inserted so as tobring about the replication or expression of the segment.

The term “nucleic acid construct” or “DNA construct” is sometimes usedto refer to a coding sequence or sequences operably linked toappropriate regulatory sequences and inserted into a vector fortransforming a cell. This term may be used interchangeably with the term“transforming DNA”. Such a nucleic acid construct may contain a codingsequence for a gene product of interest, along with a selectable markergene and/or a reporter gene.

The term “selectable marker gene” refers to a gene encoding a productthat, when expressed, confers a selectable phenotype such as antibioticresistance on a transformed cell.

The term “reporter gene” refers to a gene that encodes a product whichis easily detectable by standard methods, either directly or indirectly.

A “heterologous” region of a nucleic acid construct is an identifiablesegment (or segments) of the nucleic acid molecule within a largermolecule that is not found in association with the larger molecule innature. Thus, when the heterologous region encodes a mammalian gene, thegene will usually be flanked by DNA that does not flank the mammaliangenomic DNA in the genome of the source organism. In another example, aheterologous region is a construct where the coding sequence itself isnot found in nature (e.g., a cDNA where the genomic coding sequencecontains introns, or synthetic sequences having codons different thanthe native gene). Allelic variations or naturally-occurring mutationalevents do not give rise to a heterologous region of DNA as definedherein. The term “DNA construct”, as defined above, is also used torefer to a heterologous region, particularly one constructed for use intransformation of a cell.

A cell has been “transformed” or “transfected” by exogenous orheterologous DNA when such DNA has been introduced inside the cell. Thetransforming DNA may or may not be integrated (covalently linked) intothe genome of the cell. In prokaryotes, yeast, and mammalian cells forexample, the transforming DNA may be maintained on an episomal elementsuch as a plasmid. With respect to eukaryotic cells, a stablytransformed cell is one in which the transforming DNA has becomeintegrated into a chromosome so that it is inherited by daughter cellsthrough chromosome replication. This stability is demonstrated by theability of the eukaryotic cell to establish cell lines or clonescomprised of a population of daughter cells containing the transformingDNA. A “clone” is a population of cells derived from a single cell orcommon ancestor by mitosis. A “cell line” is a clone of a primary cellthat is capable of stable growth in vitro for many generations.

II. Description

In accordance with the present invention, an isolated nucleic acidmolecule is provided that encodes a novel regulator of ABA-mediatedstomata aperture control. This nucleic acid molecule is referred toherein as AAPK (“ABA-activated protein kinase”). Its manner ofregulating ABA-mediated stomata aperture control is novel andinteresting. When the functional product of the gene is eliminated orspecifically altered in a plant, the plant exhibits decreasedsensitivity to ABA-induced stomatal closure, but without changing theplant's responses to stomatal closure induced by darkness or CO₂. Inaddition, the loss of function of AAPK had no effect on ABA-mediatedinhibition of stomatal opening. While not intending to limit the presentinvention by describing one possible mechanism of action of AAPK, it maybe that AAPK functions as a negative regulator of ABA-mediated stomatalaperture control, and resultant transpiration and gas exchange.

AAPK was selected as an important target for cloning firstly because itsABA-activated phosphorylation activity is specific to guard cells.Secondly, AAPK was selected because it was not activated by otherstoma-closing factors such as CO₂ or darkness, making it a potentialguard cell-specific, ABA response regulator of stomatal closure.Furthermore, since maintaining control of transpirational water loss andgas exchange is of a vital and fundamental nature to plants, AAPK islikely to be a highly conserved function among all plant species.

The AAPK cDNA was isolated from a Vicia faba cDNA library by usingdegenerate primers created based on peptide sequence data. Thedegenerate primers were used in reverse transcriptase—PCR to generate a310 bp probe from guard cell RNA. The probe was then used to screen a V.faba guard cell cDNA library. Based on analysis of the probes, the AAPKgene product appears to be a significant protein kinase in the guardcells, inasmuch as other protein kinases were not identified despite thefact that the probe was homologous to domains common to other proteinkinase family members. Sequence analysis of this cDNA revealed thenucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1, and a predicted polypeptidesequence having SEQ ID NO:2. The deduced amino acid sequence wascompared to PKABA1 (SEQ ID NO:10), the expressed product of anABA-induced transcript from wheat (Anderberg & Walker-Simmons, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 10183-10187, 1992). PKABA1 is a known proteinkinase with conserved regions common to this family of kinases.Comparison with PKABA1 revealed that AAPK also possesses these conservedkinase domains.

Many diverse protein kinases are involved in cascading cellular signaltransduction; however the kinase domain is highly conserved in allprotein kinases. The AAPK protein sequence contains high similarity to alarge number of protein kinases, as revealed, for example, by thealignment of plant protein kinases shown in FIG. 1. The functionalspecialization that allows these kinases to operate in specific signaltransduction pathways lies both in the kinase domain and non-kinasedomains. The Vicia faba AAPK kinase protein (SEQ ID NO:2) displayssignificant similarity to PKABA1 (SEQ ID NO:10). While the similarity ishighest in the putative kinase domains, there are several regions wherethe two proteins are less different from one another. PKABA is expressedfrom an ABA-induced transcript, but it has not been shown to possess theABA-activated protein kinase activity of AAPK, suggesting that it playsa different role.

As described in Example 2, genomic screening of an Arabidopsis libraryand GenBank database screening using the SEQ ID NO:1 cDNA reveals thatthe Vicia faba AAPK is most similar to the proteins (SEQ ID NOS: 4, 5and 7) encoded by the Arabidopsis genes having Genbank Accession NumbersL05561 and L05562, and Arabidopsis protein having Accession No.CAA19877, respectively, indicating that these genes and proteins areclear functional homologs of Vicia faba AAPK and its encoded protein.

An additional round of database screening was performed, using peptidesegments of SEQ ID NO:2 that were homologous to SEQ ID NO: 4 (encoded byGenBank L05562, Arabidopsis Atpk) but different from wheat PKABA1 (SEQID NO:10). These peptides were: (1) PIMHDSDRYDF (SEQ ID NO:15),corresponding to residues 5-15 of SEQ ID NO:2 at the amino terminus; and(2) PADLVNENIMDNQFEEPDQ (SEQ ID NO:16), corresponding to residues275-293 of SEQ ID NO:2 near the carboxyl terminus. Screening with eitherof these peptides corroborated the physical and database screening usingthe complete sequence, identifying each the aforementioned Arabidopsisproteins. This screening also revealed a fourth homolog, identified inthe database as Protein Kinase SPK-2, Accession No. S56718 (SEQ IDNO:8). It is possible that this Arabidopsis protein is the same as thepredicted protein from clone L05561.

Although the AAPK cDNA clone from Vicia faba, and homologs fromArabidopsis are described and exemplified herein, this invention isintended to encompass nucleic acid sequences and proteins from otherplants that are sufficiently similar to be used instead of the Viciafaba or Arabidopsis AAPK nucleic acids and proteins for the purposesdescribed below. These include, but are not limited to, allelic variantsand natural mutants of AAPK, which are likely to be found in differentvarieties of Vicia faba, as well as homologs of AAPK from differentspecies of plants. Because such variants and homologs are expected topossess certain differences in nucleotide and amino acid sequence, thisinvention provides an isolated AAPK nucleic acid molecule having atleast about 50% (preferably 60%, more preferably 70% and even morepreferably over 80%) sequence identity in the coding regions with thenucleotide sequence set forth as SEQ ID NOs:1, 3, 5, 7 or 9 (and, mostpreferably, specifically comprising the coding regions of SEQ ID NOs:1,3, or 6 This invention also provides isolated polypeptide products ofthe open reading frames of AAPK, having at least about 60% (preferably70%, 75%, 80% or greater) sequence identity with the amino acidsequences of SEQ ID NOS: 2, 4, 5, 7 or 9. Because of the naturalsequence variation likely to exist among AAPK genes, one skilled in theart would expect to find up to about 30-40% nucleotide sequencevariation, while still maintaining the unique properties of the AAPKnucleic acid molecules and encoded polypeptides of the presentinvention. Such an expectation is due in part to the degeneracy of thegenetic code, as well as to the known evolutionary success ofconservative amino acid sequence variations, which do not appreciablyalter the nature of the encoded protein. Accordingly, such variants andhomologs are considered substantially the same as one another and areincluded within the scope of the present invention. Within theparameters of sequence identity and similarity set forth above, AAPKsfrom any plant species are considered part of the present invention.Such plant species include dicotyledenous and monocotyledenous floweringplants, as well as any other plant that possesses stomata. Of particularimportance to the invention are AAPKs from agronomically orhorticulturally important plant species, including maize, wheat, rye,oats, barley, rice, sorghum, soy and other beans, alfalfa, sunflower,canola, lawn and turfgrasses, tobacco, aster, zinnia, chrysanthemum,beet, carrot, cruciferous vegetables, cucumber, grape, pea, potato,rutabaga, tomato, tomatillo and turnip, to name a few.

AAPK nucleic acid molecules of the invention include DNA, RNA, andfragments thereof which may be single- or double-stranded. Thus, thisinvention provides oligonucleotides (sense or antisense strands of DNAor RNA) having sequences capable of hybridizing with at least onesequence of a nucleic acid molecule encoding the protein of the presentinvention. Such oligonucleotides are useful as probes for detecting AAPKgenes or transcripts.

In addition to encompassing natural mutants of AAPK, the presentinvention is drawn to artificially created mutants, produced by in vitromutagenesis or isolated from mutagenized plants, as described in greaterdetail below. These mutant AAPK nucleic acids and their encoded proteinsare integral to practicing the methods of the invention, which involveregulating ABA-mediated stomatal closure in plants. The presentinvention further encompasses genetically modified plants having alteredtranspiration and gas exchange characteristics due to thedown-regulation or up-regulation of AAPK in those plants.

The following sections set forth the general procedures involved inpracticing the present invention in all of its aspects as summarizedabove. To the extent that specific materials are mentioned, it is merelyfor purposes of illustration and is not intended to limit the invention.Unless otherwise specified, general cloning procedures, such as thoseset forth in Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning, Cold Spring HarborLaboratory (1989) (hereinafter “Sambrook et al.”) or Ausubel et al.(eds) Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons (2000)(hereinafter “Ausubel et al.”) are used.

A. Preparation of AAPK Nucleic Acids, Proteins, Antibodies, AAPK Mutantsand Transgenic Plants

Preparation of AAPK Nucleic Acid Molecules. AAPK nucleic acid moleculesof the invention may be prepared by two general methods: (1) they may besynthesized from appropriate nucleotide triphosphates, or (2) they maybe isolated from biological sources. Both methods utilize protocols wellknown in the art.

The availability of nucleotide sequence information, such SEQ ID NOS: 1,3 and 6, enables preparation of an isolated nucleic acid molecule of theinvention by polynucleotide synthesis. Synthetic oligonucleotides may beprepared by the phosphoramadite method employed in the AppliedBiosystems 38A DNA Synthesizer or similar devices. The resultantconstruct may be purified according to methods known in the art, such ashigh performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Long, double-strandedpolynucleotides, such as a DNA molecule of the present invention, mustbe synthesized in stages, due to the size limitations inherent incurrent oligonucleotide synthetic methods. Thus, for example, a longdouble-stranded molecule may be synthesized as several smaller segmentsof appropriate complementarity. Complementary segments thus produced maybe annealed such that each segment possesses appropriate cohesivetermini for attachment of an adjacent segment. Adjacent segments may beligated by annealing cohesive termini in the presence of DNA ligase toconstruct an entire long double-stranded molecule. A synthetic DNAmolecule so constructed may then be cloned and amplified in anappropriate vector.

Modified (i.e., “mutant”) nucleic acid molecules of the invention alsomay be synthesized as described above. In this embodiment, the desiredalteration is simply programmed into the synthetic scheme. In anotherembodiment, an unaltered synthetic nucleic acid molecule ismanufactured, and subsequently altered by site-directed mutagenesis.

Nucleic acid molecules encoding the AAPK protein may be isolated from V.faba, Arabidopsis or any other plant of interest using methods wellknown in the art. It will be appreciated that such methods may be usedto screen libraries of mutant plants as well as wild-type plants. Inorder to isolate AAPK-encoding nucleic acids from plants other than V.faba, or Arabidopsis, oligonucleotides designed to match the nucleicacids encoding the V. faba or Arabidopsis AAPK protein may be used withcDNA or genomic libraries from the desired species. If the AAPK genefrom a species is desired, the genomic library is screened. Alternately,if the protein coding sequence is of particular interest, the cDNAlibrary is screened. In positions of degeneracy, where more than onenucleic acid residue could be used to encode the appropriate amino acidresidue, all the appropriate nucleic acids residues may be incorporatedto create a mixed oligonucleotide population, or a neutral base such asinosine may be used. Such degenerate libraries also may be customizedfor the codon preference of the plant species to be screened. Thestrategy of oligonucleotide design is well known in the art (see Ausbelet al., Sambrook et al.).

In another embodiment, known AAPK sequences may be used in “data mining”to screen databases for homologous sequences, as is well known in theart and exemplified herein.

Alternatively, PCR (polymerase chain reaction) primers may be designedby the above method to encode a portion a known AAPK protein, and theseprimers used to amplify nucleic acids from isolated cDNA or genomic DNA.In a preferred embodiment, the oligonucleotides used to isolate AAPKnucleic acids are designed to encode sequences conserved among AAPKs,but not between AAPK and other kinases (e.g., the PKABA1 protein kinasefamily), as described above.

In accordance with the present invention, nucleic acids having theappropriate sequence homology with a known AAPK nucleic acid moleculemay be identified by using hybridization and washing conditions ofappropriate stringency. For example, hybridizations may be performed,according to the method of Sambrook et al. (1989, supra), using ahybridization solution comprising: 5×SSC, 5× Denhardt's reagent. 1.0%SDS, 100 μg/ml denatured, fragmented salmon sperm DNA, 0.05% sodiumpyrophosphate and up to 50% formamide. Hybridization is carried out at37-42° C. for at least six hours. Following hybridization, filters arewashed as follows: (1) 5 minutes at room temperature in 2×SSC and 1%SDS; (2) 15 minutes at room temperature in 2×SSC and 0.1% SDS; (3) 30minutes-1 hour at 37° C. in 1×SSC and 1% SDS; (4) 2 hours at 42-65° in1×SSC and 1% SDS, changing the solution every 30 minutes.

One common formula for calculating the stringency conditions required toachieve hybridization between nucleic acid molecules of a specifiedsequence homology (Sambrook et al.) is:

T _(m)=81.5 EC+16.6 Log [Na+]+0.41(% G+C)−0.63 (% formamide)−600/@bp induplex

As an illustration of the above formula, using [N+]=[0.368] and 50%formamide, with GC content of 42% and an average probe size of 200bases, the T_(m) is 57° C. The T_(m) of a DNA duplex decreases by 1-1.5°C. with every 1% decrease in homology. Thus, targets with greater thanabout 75% sequence identity would be observed using a hybridizationtemperature of 42° C. In a preferred embodiment, the hybridization is at37° C. and the final wash is at 42° C., in a more preferred embodimentthe hybridization is at 42° C. and the final wash is at 50° C., and in amost preferred embodiment the hybridization is at 42° C. and final washis at 65° C., with the above hybridization and wash solutions.Conditions of high stringency include hybridization at 42° C. in theabove hybridization solution and a final wash at 65° C. in 0.1×SSC and0.1% SDS for 10 minutes.

Nucleic acids of the present invention may be maintained as DNA in anyconvenient cloning vector. In a preferred embodiment, clones aremaintained in plasmid cloning/expression vector, such as pBluescript(Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.), which is propagated in a suitable E.coli host cell.

Preparation of Polypeptides and Antibodies. AAPK polypeptides may beprepared in a variety of ways, according to known methods. Theavailability of nucleic acid molecules encoding the polypeptides enablessynthesis of the proteins by known methods, or production of theproteins using in vitro expression methods known in the art. Forexample, a cDNA or gene may be cloned into an appropriate in vitrotranscription vector, such a pSP64 or pSP65 for in vitro transcription,followed by cell-free translation in a suitable cell-free translationsystem, such as wheat germ or rabbit reticulocytes. In vitrotranscription and translation systems are commercially available, e.g.,from Promega Biotech, Madison, Wis. or BRL, Rockville, Md. The pCITE invitro translation system (Novagen) also may be utilized.

According to a preferred embodiment, larger quantities of the proteinsmay be produced by expression in a suitable procaryotic or eucaryoticsystem. For example, part or all of a DNA molecule, such as the codingportion of SEQ ID NOS: 1, 3 or 6, or appropriate complementarysequences, may be inserted into a plasmid vector adapted for expressionin a bacterial cell (such as E. coli) or a yeast cell (such asSaccharomyces cerevisiae), or into a baculovirus vector for expressionin an insect cell. Such vectors comprise the regulatory elementsnecessary for expression of the DNA in the host cell, positioned in sucha manner as to permit expression of the DNA in the host cell. Suchregulatory elements required for expression include promoter sequences,transcription initiation sequences and, optionally, enhancer sequences.

The AAPK polypeptides produced by gene expression in a recombinantprocaryotic or eucyarotic system may be purified according to methodsknown in the art. In a preferred embodiment, a commercially availableexpression/secretion system can be used, whereby the recombinant proteinis expressed and thereafter secreted from the host cell, to be easilypurified from the surrounding medium. If expression/secretion vectorsare not used, an alternative approach involves purifying the recombinantprotein by affinity separation, such as by immunological interactionwith antibodies that bind specifically to the recombinant protein. Suchmethods are commonly used by skilled practitioners.

AAPK proteins, prepared by the aforementioned methods, may be analyzedaccording to standard procedures. Methods for analyzing the functionalactivity of kinases are well known to persons skilled in the art.Alternatively, the function of the kinase in stomatal closure may beanalyzed, as described in greater detail below and in Example 1.

The present invention also provides antibodies that are immunologicallyspecific to the AAPK of the invention. Polyclonal antibodies may beprepared according to standard methods. In a preferred embodiment,monoclonal antibodies are prepared, which are specific to variousepitopes of the protein. Monoclonal antibodies may be prepared accordingto general methods of Köhler and Milstein, following standard protocols.Polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies that are immunologically specificfor the AAPK can be utilized for identifying and purifying AAPK from V.faba and other species. For example, antibodies may be utilized foraffinity separation of proteins for which they are specific or toquantify the protein. Antibodies may also be used to immunoprecipitateproteins from a sample containing a mixture of proteins and otherbiological molecules.

Mutants and Transgenic Plants. Example 1 describes a synthetic mutant,AAPK(K43A) in Vicia faba, which displays insensitivity to ABA-inducestomatal closure due to the loss of function of AAPK. Any plant may betransgenically engineered to display a similar phenotype. This approachis particularly appropriate to plants with high ploidy numbers,including but not limited to wheat.

These synthetic null mutant are created by a expressing a mutant form ofthe AAPK protein to create a “dominant negative effect”. While notlimiting the invention to any one mechanism, this mutant AAPK proteincompetes with wild-type AAPK protein for interacting proteins in thetransgenic plant, or poisons an AAPK multimeric complex. Byover-producing the mutant form of the protein, the signaling pathwayused by the wild-type AAPK protein can be effectively blocked. Examplesof this type of “dominant negative” effect are well known for bothinsect and vertebrate systems (Radke et al, 1997, Genetics 145:163-171;Kolch et al., 1991, Nature 349:426-428). In a preferred embodiment, themutant protein is produced by mutating the coding sequence of AAPKcorresponding to residues in the active site. In a particularlypreferred embodiment, the coding sequence corresponding to the lysineresidue at position 43 is mutated to code for a different, preferablynon-similar, amino acid residue, for example, alanine.

A second kind of synthetic null mutant can be created by inhibiting thetranslation of the AAPK mRNA by “post-transcriptional gene silencing”.The AAPK gene from the species targeted for down-regulation, or afragment thereof, may be utilized to control the production of theencoded protein. Full-length antisense molecules or antisenseoligonucleotides are used that are targeted to specific regions of theAAPK-encoded RNA that are critical for translation. The use of antisensemolecules to decrease expression levels of a pre-determined gene isknown in the art. Antisense molecules may be provided in situ bytransforming plant cells with a DNA construct which, upon transcription,produces the antisense RNA sequences. Such constructs can be designed toproduce full-length or partial antisense sequences. This gene silencingeffect can be enhanced by transgenically over-producing both sense andantisense RNA of the gene coding sequence so that a high amount of dsRNAis produced (for example see Waterhouse et al., 1998, PNAS95:13959-13964). In a preferred embodiment, part or all of the AAPKcoding sequence antisense strand is expressed by a transgene. In aparticularly preferred embodiment, hybridizing sense and antisensestrands of part or all of the AAPK coding sequence are transgenicallyexpressed.

A third type of synthetic null mutant can also be created by thetechnique of “co-suppression”. Plant cells are transformed with a copyof the endogenous gene targeted for repression. In many cases, thisresults in the complete repression of the native gene as well as thetransgene. In a preferred embodiment, the AAPK gene from the plantspecies of interest is isolated and used to transform cells of that samespecies.

Transgenic plants can also be created that have enhanced AAPK activity.This can be accomplished by transforming plant cells with a transgenethat expresses part or all of the AAPK coding sequence, or a sequencethat encodes the either the AAPK protein or a protein functionallysimilar to it. In a preferred embodiment, the complete AAPK codingsequence is transgenically over-expressed. In another embodiment, thecoding sequence corresponding to the kinase domain of AAPK isover-expressed.

Transgenic plants with one of the transgenes mentioned above can begenerated using standard plant transformation methods known to thoseskilled in the art. These include, but are not limited to, Agrobacteriumvectors, polyethylene glycol treatment of protoplasts, biolistic DNAdelivery, UV laser microbeam, gemini virus vectors, calcium phosphatetreatment of protoplasts, electroporation of isolated protoplasts,agitation of cell suspensions in solution with microbeads coated withthe transforming DNA, agitation of cell suspension in solution withsilicon fibers coated with transforming DNA, direct DNA uptake,liposome-mediated DNA uptake, and the like. Such methods have beenpublished in the art. See, e.g., Methods for Plant Molecular Biology(Weissbach & Weissbach, eds., 1988); Methods in Plant Molecular Biology(Schuler & Zielinski, eds., 1989); Plant Molecular Biology Manual(Gelvin, Schilperoort, Verma, eds., 1993); and Methods in PlantMolecular Biology—A Laboratory Manual (Maliga, Klessig, Cashmore,Gruissem & Varner, eds., 1994).

The method of transformation depends upon the plant to be transformed.Agrobacterium vectors are often used to transform dicot species.Agrobacterium binary vectors include, but are not limited to, BIN19(Bevan, 1984) and derivatives thereof, the pBI vector series (Jeffersonet al., 1987), and binary vectors pGA482 and pGA492 (An, 1986) Fortransformation of monocot species, biolistic bombardment with particlescoated with transforming DNA and silicon fibers coated with transformingDNA are often useful for nuclear transformation.

DNA constructs for transforming a selected plant comprise a codingsequence of interest operably linked to appropriate 5′ (e.g., promotersand translational regulatory sequences) and 3′ regulatory sequences(e.g., terminators). In a preferred embodiment, the coding region isplaced under a powerful constitutive promoter, such as the CauliflowerMosaic Virus (CaMV) 35S promoter or the figwort mosaic virus 35Spromoter. Other constitutive promoters contemplated for use in thepresent invention include, but are not limited to: T-DNA mannopinesynthetase, nopaline synthase (NOS) and octopine synthase (OCS)promoters.

Transgenic plants expressing a sense or antisense AAPK coding sequenceunder an inducible promoter are also contemplated to be within the scopeof the present invention. Inducible plant promoters include thetetracycline repressor/operator controlled promoter, the heat shock genepromoters, stress (e.g., wounding)-induced promoters, defense responsivegene promoters (e.g. phenylalanine ammonia lyase genes), wound inducedgene promoters (e.g. hydroxyproline rich cell wall protein genes),chemically-inducible gene promoters (e.g., nitrate reductase genes,glucanase genes, chitinase genes, etc.) and dark-inducible genepromoters (e.g., asparagine synthetase gene) to name a few.

Tissue specific and development-specific promoters are also contemplatedfor use in the present invention. Examples of these included, but arenot limited to: the ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (RuBisCo) smallsubunit gene promoters or chlorophyll a/b binding protein (CAB) genepromoters for expression in photosynthetic tissue; the various seedstorage protein gene promoters for expression in seeds; and theroot-specific glutamine synthetase gene promoters where expression inroots is desired. Although the AAPK gene of the preferred embodimentstaught with this invention are specifically expressed in guard cells,this in no way limits the application of this invention to any specifictissue or development phase, but rather represents only the particularembodiments taught herein.

The coding region is also operably linked to an appropriate 3′regulatory sequence. In a preferred embodiment, the nopaline synthetasepolyadenylation region (NOS) is used. Other useful 3′ regulatory regionsinclude, but are not limited to the octopine (OCS) polyadenylationregion.

Using an Agrobacterium binary vector system for transformation, theselected coding region, under control of a constitutive or induciblepromoter as described above, is linked to a nuclear drug resistancemarker, such as kanamycin resistance. Other useful selectable markersystems include, but are not limited to: other genes that conferantibiotic resistances (e.g., resistance to hygromycin or bialaphos) orherbicide resistance (e.g., resistance to sulfonylurea,phosphinothricin, or glyphosate).

Plants are transformed and thereafter screened for one or moreproperties, including the lack of AAPK protein, AAPK mRNA, or alteredstomatal aperture responses to ABA treatment. It should be recognizedthat the amount of expression, as well as the tissue-specific pattern ofexpression of the transgenes in transformed plants can vary depending onthe position of their insertion into the nuclear genome. Such positionaleffects are well known in the art. For this reason, several nucleartransformants should be regenerated and tested for expression of thetransgene.

Transgenic plants that exhibit one or more of the aforementioneddesirable phenotypes can be used for plant breeding, or directly inagricultural or horticultural applications. Plants containing onetransgene may also be crossed with plants containing a complementarytransgene in order to produce plants with enhanced or combinedphenotypes.

An alternative to the transgenic approach described above is thescreening of populations of plant mutants of a variety of species, fromwhich AAPK mutants can be isolated. Such populations can be made bychemical mutagenesis, radiation mutagenesis, and transposon or T-DNAinsertion, as is well known in the art. In a preferred embodiment, themutants would be null mutants having a phenotype comprising reduced orsubstantially absent stomatal closure in response to abscisic acid, butno reduction in stomatal closure response to darkness or CO₂. In yetanother preferred embodiment, mutant are screened for the phenotypesrelated to overproduction of the AAPK gene product and/or increasedsensitivity to ABA-induced stomatal closure.

The nucleic acids of the invention can be used to isolate or create AAPKmutants in a selected species. In species such as maize where transposoninsertion lines are available, oligonucleotide primers can be designedto screen lines for insertions in the AAPK gene. Plants with transposonor T-DNA insertions in the AAPK gene are very likely to have lost thefunction of the gene product. Through breeding, a plant line may then bedeveloped that is homozygous for the non-functional copy or the alteredcopy of the AAPK gene. The PCR primers for this purpose are designed sothat large portions of the coding sequence the AAPK gene arespecifically amplified using the sequence of the AAPK gene from thespecies to be probed (see Baumann et al., 1998, Theor. Appl. Genet.97:729-734).

Other AAPK-like mutants can be isolated from mutant populations usingthe distinctive phenotype characterized in accordance with the presentinvention. This approach is particularly appropriate in plants with lowploidy numbers where the phenotype of a recessive mutation is moreeasily detected. In order to identify these mutants, the population ofplants would be exposed to abscisic acid (ABA) or analogs of thehormone. Plants would then be screened for phenotype of the AAPKmutants: the reduced stomatal closure in response to applied ABA,without a reduction in stomatal response to darkness or CO₂. That thephenotype is caused by an AAPK mutation is then established by molecularmeans well known in the art.

It will be appreciated that any of the aforementioned transformation ormutagenesis techniques may be applied to any selected plant species.Such species include, but are not limited to, agronomically importantcrop plants such as maize, wheat, rice, rye, oats, barley, soy and otherbeans, sorghum, sunflower, canola, tobacco and alfalfa; vegetable andfruit crop plants such as beet, carrot, cruciferous vegetables,cucumber, grape, pea, potato, rutabaga, tomato, tomatillo and turnip;and horticulturally important plants such as aster, begonia,chrysanthemum, clover, lawn and turf grasses, mint and other herbs, andzinnia.

B. Uses of AAPK Nucleic Acids, Proteins, Antibodies, AAPK Mutants andTransgenic Plants

Nucleic Acid Molecules. AAPK nucleic acids may be used for a variety ofpurposes in accordance with the present invention. DNA, RNA, orfragments thereof, may be used as probes to detect the presence and/orexpression of AAPK genes. Methods in which AAPK nucleic acids may beutilized as probes for such assays include, but are not limited to: (1)in situ hybridization; (2) Southern hybridization (3) Northernhybridization; and (4) assorted amplification reactions such aspolymerase chain reactions (PCR).

The AAPK nucleic acids of the invention may also be utilized as probesto identify related genes from other plant species. As is well known inthe art, hybridization stringencies may be adjusted to allowhybridization of nucleic acid probes with complementary sequences ofvarying degrees of homology. As described above, AAPK nucleic acids maybe used to advantage to produce large quantities of substantially pureAAPK, or selected portions thereof. The AAPK nucleic acids can be usedto identify and isolate other putative members of this novelABA-mediated stomatal aperture control signal cascade in vivo. A yeasttwo hybrid system can be used to identify proteins that physicallyinteract with the AAPK protein, as well as isolate their nucleic acids.In this system, the sequence encoding the protein of interest isoperably linked to the sequence encoding half of a activator protein.This construct is used to transform a yeast cell library which has beentransformed with DNA constructs that contain the coding sequence for theother half of the activator protein operably linked to a random codingsequence from the organism of interest. When the protein made by therandom coding sequence from the library interacts with the protein ofinterest, the two halves of the activator protein are physicallyassociated and form a functional unit that activates the reporter gene.In accordance with the present invention, all or part of the AAPK codingsequence may be operably linked to the coding sequence of the first halfof the activator, and the library of random coding sequences may beconstructed with cDNA from V. faba and operably linked to the codingsequence of the second half of the activator protein. Several activatorprotein/reporter genes are customarily used in the yeast two hybridsystem. In a preferred embodiment, the bacterial repressor LexADNA-binding domain and the Gal4 transcription activation domain fusionproteins associate to activate the LacZ reporter gene (see Clark et al.,1998, PNAS 95:5401-5406). Kits for the two hybrid system are alsocommercially available from Clontech, Palo Alto Calif., among others.

In a preferred embodiment, interaction cloning is used identify proteinsthat physically interact with the AAPK protein and to isolate thenucleic acids encoding them. In this method, a cDNA expression libraryis screened for proteins that interact with the AAPK catalytic domain,or other selected domains that might be involved in protein-proteininteractions. This is done using a filter binding assay and a labeledpeptide comprising the putative interacting site. Positive clones arethen purified, amplified if necessary, and characterized.

Proteins and Antibodies. The AAPK proteins of the present invention canbe used to identify molecules with binding affinity for AAPK, which arelikely to be novel participants in this resistance pathway. In theseassays, the known protein is allowed to form a physical interaction withthe unknown binding molecule(s), often in a heterogenous solution ofproteins. The known protein in complex with associated molecules is thenisolated, and the nature of the associated protein(s) and/or othermolecules is determined.

AAPK may also be generated as part of a fusion protein with one or moreother proteins, for example with a green fluorescent protein (GFP). Suchfusion products may have utility from either or each part of the fusionmolecule. For example, the easy detection of their presence is providedby the GFP moiety, while the specific kinase activity is retained by theAAPK moiety. Additionally they may allow convenient use of commerciallyavailable antibodies specific to the fused portion (e.g antiGFPantibodies are readily available.)

Antibodies that are immunologically specific for AAPK may be utilized inaffinity chromatography to isolate the AAPK protein, to identify orquantify the AAPK protein utilizing techniques such as western blottingand ELISA, or to immuno-precipitate AAPK from a sample containing amixture of proteins and other biological materials. Theimmuno-precipitation of AAPK is particularly advantageous when utilizedto isolate affinity binding complexes of AAPK, as described above.

Mutants and Transgenic Plants. The AAPK mutants of the invention displayaltered sensitivity to ABA-induced stomatal closure, and therefore canbe used to improve crop and horticultural plant species. The AAPKmutants taught in this invention are particularly valuable in that themutation is very specific. The altered sensitivity is found only inguard cells, and stomatal closure by other means such as darkness or CO₂is unaffected. Such mutants will therefore be particularly useful incrop and horticultural varieties in which reduction of moisture contentis important. Examples of such crops include but are not limited tocereal grains such as corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, and rice, soybeansand other beans, as well as other products such as hay and commercialseed. In most of these cases failure to adequately dry the crop due toweather or other conditions results in substantial losses. In othercases including but not limited to tobacco, dried fruits such as raisinsand prunes, nuts, coffee, tea, cocoa, and many ornamental goods, theproduce needs to be dried immediately after harvest prior and to use. Inthese cases again, the mutants of this invention may be of tremendousvalue to growers who could accelerate or control the rate of cropdrying.

The AAPK mutants exhibit a decreased induction by ABA of normal stomatalclosure. They therefore have influence over transpirational water lossin plants. It is therefore contemplated that in addition to the specificapplications mentioned heretofore, these mutants will have myriadapplications to other important plant problems especially in irrigatedcrops or other crops where water and yield are delicately balanced.

It is also trivial to one skilled in the art to extend this invention tothe production of mutants with increased sensitivity to ABA-inducedstomatal closure. These mutants are useful for a variety agronomicpurposes. It is clear that such mutants would keep the stomatal aperturesmall, and would therefore experience reduced transpirational waterloss. Such mutants can be used to help enhance tolerance to water stressor drought conditions. Such mutants could be the result of active sitechanges or modifications which allow them to respond to lowerconcentrations of ABA, or they could be the result of mutations in genesin a common regulatory pathway. Such mutants could also be the result ofoverexpression of the AAPK gene product via a transgenic modificationsuch that expression of APK is driven by an inducible promoter, astrong, highly active constitutive promoter, or by increasing the copynumber of the gene in the plant. These approaches are all conceptuallysimple to one skilled in the art, and other approaches may be preferredfor particular embodiments.

The AAPK mutants of the invention can be used to identify and isolateadditional members of this ABA-regulation of transpiration pathway.Mutations that, when combined with AAPK mutations, suppress the mutantphenotype, are likely to interact directly with AAPK, or to compensatein some significant indirect way for the loss of AAPK function. SinceAAPK is known to be a protein kinase with both autophosphorylation andsubstrate phosphorylation, there are opportunities to identify otherimportant members of the ABA signal cascade using the mutants of thispresent invention.

The transgenic plants of the invention are particularly useful inconferring the AAPK phenotype to many different plant species. In thismanner, a host of plant species with enhanced disease resistance can beeasily made, to be used as breeding lines or directly in commercialoperations. Such plants can have uses as crop species, or for ornamentaluse.

A plant that has had functional AAPK transgenically depleted willexhibit the same altered sensitivity to ABA-induced stomatal closure asAAPK mutants. It is therefore contemplated that transgenicAAPK-phenotype plants will be used with in the same aforementionedmanner as the AAPK mutants. A transgenic approach is advantageousbecause it allows AAPK-phenotype plants to be created quickly, withouttime-consuming mutant generation, selection, and back-crossing.

A plant that has had functional AAPK increased may have enhancedsensitivity to ABA-induced stomatal closure compared to wild-typeplants. Plants with enhanced sensitivity to ABA-induced stomatal closurewill be extremely valuable to agriculture and horticulture by allowingplants to better tolerate periods of restricted water or drought.Additionally, such mutants may provide the advantage of allowing produceto retain water as long as possible. For many fruits, vegetables andflowers, including cut flowers, it would be advantageous to minimizewater loss during the harvest, transport and distribution. Retailcustomers too would benefit from the extended shelf-life of such fruits,vegetables and flowers which would remain fresher for longer periods oftime.

The following examples are provided to describe the invention in greaterdetail. They are intended to illustrate, not to limit, the invention.

EXAMPLE 1 Cloning and Characterization of ABA-Activated ProteinKinase-Encoding cDNA from Guard Cells

This example describes the cloning and characterization of a Vicia fabacomplementary DNA, AAPK, encoding a guard cell-specific ABA-activatedserine-threonine protein kinase (AAPK).

Methods

Isolation and Identification of ABA-Activated Protein Kinase (AAPK).Guard cell protoplasts (2×10⁶; 99.6% pure) were prepared from Viciafaba. Protoplasts were treated with either darkness, ABA or elevated CO₂concentrations prior to protein isolation. Protoplast proteins wereextracted and subjected to 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Separationwas via 12% SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Kinaseautophosphorylation activity of subsequently renatured proteins wasdetected by established methods.

The AAPK protein was excised from the 2-D gels (first dimension,nondenaturing PAGE) after digestion with trypsin. The AAPK peptidesgenerated by trypsin digestion were subjected to peptide sequencing bytandem mass spectrometry on a Finnigan LCQ quadrupole ion trap massspectrometer.

Cloning of ABA-Activated Protein Kinase (AAPK). The gene encoding AAPKwas cloned by screening a V. faba cDNA library with probes constructedbased on peptide sequence data obtained from the mass spectrometryanalysis.

Degenerate DNA primers whose design was based on sequences conservedbetween subdomain II of the protein kinase ABA1 (PKABA1) protein kinasesubfamily and the AAPK sequence corresponding to protein kinasesubdomain VIb, were synthesized. The degenerate primers{5′-TTGC(C/T)(A/G)T(G/C) AA(A/G)TACATCGAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:17) (forwardprimer, located in subdomain II), 5′-CCATC(C/T)A(A/G)NAGNGT(A/G)TTTTC-3′(SEQ ID NO:18) (reverse primer, located in subdomain VIb) whereN=A+G+C+T} were used for reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction(RT-PCR) using as template total RNA from guard cells. of V. faba. ThePCR product was labelled with {³²P}dCTP.

This ³²P-labelled probe was then used to screen a V. faba guard cellcDNA library in λ-Zap II. A full length cDNA of the appropriate size toencode the AAPK was obtained. The cDNA was sequenced in both directions.

Total RNA was isolated from purified guard cells, mesophyll cells,flowers, leaves and seeds of V. faba. Northern analysis was performed bystandard methods. The probe was the ³²P-labelled BglII-Csp45I fragmentof the AAPK cDNA clone. This probe includes the sequence encoding therelatively unique AAPK amino terminal region and part of the 3′untranslated region of the cDNA.

Functional Analysis of the AAPK Gene. Functional analysis of the AAPKgene product was complicated by the observation that ABA-activation ofthe AAPK does not occur in vitro. Prior treatment of intact guard cellswith ABA was required to elicit active AAPK upon extraction. In light ofthis apparent requirement for an intact cellular signal system, DNAconstructs were created to facilitate the analysis of expression andactivity of AAPK.

Creation of AAPK Mutants and Hybrid Expression DNA Constructs. Aconstruct encoding a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged AAPK wasmade. This construct, pAAPK-GFP, was created by amplifying the AAPKcoding sequence from the AAPK cDNA and inserting the amplified codingsequence downstream of the 35S promoter and upstream of, and in-framewith, the GFP coding sequence in the GFP expression vector, pGFP. Theamplification was performed via PCR with the primers5′-GAATCTCCACTACGACGCCGTTTACTTCCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:19) and5′-CCGTGCAACCATGGATATGGCATATACAAT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:20). NcoI was used fordigestion and insertion.

Another DNA construct, pAAPK(K43A)-GFP was created. This constructcontained a site-directed mutation of AAPK, such that the codingsequence for a highly conserved lysine residue (Lys⁴³), believed to bein the ATP-binding site of the kinase AAPK, was specifically modified toencode an alanine residue instead of the lysine. Such mutations havebeen shown to yield kinases with reduced or absent catalytic activity.

Analysis of AAPK Mutants and Hybrid Expression DNA Constructs forABA-Activated Protein Kinase Activity. 1.5×10⁷ V. faba guard cellprotoplasts were transfected with either the vector, pGFP, or theconstructs, pAAPK-GFP or pAAPK(K43A)-GFP by polyethylene glycol(PEG)-mediated DNA transfer. After uptake and expression, protoplastswere lysed and recombinant protein was immunoprecipitated with anti-GFPpeptide antibodies (Clontech) and protein A-Sepharose CL-4B (AmershamPharmacia Biotech). Immunoprecipitated proteins were assayed for kinaseactivity using histone III-S (Sigma) as substrate.

Analysis of AAPK Mutants for Stomatal Aperture Changes and Anion ChannelActivation. V. faba leaves were biolistically transformed with the pGFP,pAAPK-GFP, or pAAPK(K43A)-GFP constructs. The V. faba leaves werebombarded with gold particles (Bio-Rad) coated with one of the DNAconstructs. Bombardment was via a particle delivery system 1000/He(Bio-Rad) as described. (J. Marc et al., 1998, Plant Cell 10:1927).

Abaxial epidermal peels were isolated and the transformed guard cellswere assayed for ABA-mediated prevention of stomatal opening and forstomatal closure stimulated by ABA, CO₂ or darkness. Conditions were asin Assman, S., and Baskin, T. (1998) J. Exp. Bot. 49:163 except that theincubation solution was 10 mM MES, 30 mM KCl, pH=6.1, with or without 50μM {±} cis,trans-ABA. For closure experiments, the transformed leaveswere illuminated with 0.20 mmol m⁻² s⁻¹ white light for 2.5 h to openthe stomata. The abaxial epidermal peels were placed in incubationsolution and treated with either darkness, 25 μM {±} cis,trans-ABA orwith 700 ppm CO₂ for 1 h.

Anion channel activation was measured in guard cell protoplasts.Whole-cell patch-clamp experiments were performed according toestablished methods. Pipette solution contained 100 mM KCl, 50 mMtetramethylammonium, 2 mM MgCl, 6.7 mM EGTA-(Tris)₂, 3.35 mM CaCl₂, 10mM HEPES, pH=7.1 (Tris) and 5 mM Mg-ATP. Bath solution contained 40 mMCaCl₂, 2 mM MgCl and 10 mM MES-Tris pH5.6. Osmolalities were adjustedwith sorbitol to 500 mosmol/kg (in the pipette) or 470 mosmol/kg (in thebath). Protein kinase inhibitor K-252a (Calbiochem) was prepared as astock solution at 2 mM in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).

Results and Discussion

The Vicia faba ABA-Activated Protein Kinase (AAPK) is a 48 kDa Protein.AAPK was identified as a 48 kDa ABA-dependent and Ca²⁺-independentautophosphorylation spot with the in-gel kinase assay. The peptidefragment sequence information obtained is provided in FIG. 1. Twosequenced AAPK peptides had similarity to the protein kinase ABA1(PKABA1) protein kinase subfamily in subdomains I and VIb. PKABA1 istranscriptionally up-regulated by ABA.

Cloning of a Guard-Cell-Specific AAPK Gene Encoding ABA-ActivatedProtein Kinase (AAPK). The RT-PCR of total guard cell RNA using thedegenerate primers yielded a 310 base pair sequence which encoded thepeptides sequences from the AAPK and also encoded a sequence similar tothat of the PKABA1 subfamily from subdomains II to VIb. A full lengthcDNA of the appropriate size to encode the AAPK was obtained from thescreening of the V. faba cDNA library with this probe.

The nucleotide sequence of the full length AAPK cDNA and the amino acidsequence of the deduced AAPK protein are given in FIG. 1. The deducedAAPK amino acid sequence shows the greatest homology to the PKABA1subfamily. However, the predicted sequence also has unique regions.

Northern analysis showed that AAPK mRNA is expressed in guard cellprotoplasts but not in mesophyll cell protoplasts, flowers, leaves, orseeds; true to the pattern of guard cell-specificity previously observedfor AAPK activity. AAPK appears to be a single copy gene based onresults from Southern analysis; however, further analysis may reveal thepresence of more than one copy.

The in situ activation requirement for AAPK activity could be anindication that an intact cellular signal or cascade is required. Anydiscussion or explanation offered here is intended to provide clarityand is not intended to limit the invention in any way to one theory oravenue as to the mechanism or application.

ABA-Dependent Autophosphorylation and ABA-Activated SubstratePhosphorylation. No histone phosphorylation was observed by the proteinsimmunoprecipitated from guard cells transformed with the control vector(pGFP) only. Phosphorylation activity of the fusion proteins AAPK-GFPand AAPK(K43A)-GFP was also determined. The immunoprecipitate from cellstransfected with pAAPK-GFP showed histone phosphorylation activity whichwas significantly enhanced when the protoplasts were treated with ABAprior to isolation of the proteins. The fusion product of pAAPK-GFPshowed both ABA-dependent autophosphorylation and the ABA-activatedhistone phophorylation, establishing that the cloned gene indeed encodesthe observed biochemical activity of AAPK. The immunoprecipitate fromcells transfected with pAAPK(K43A)-GFP, encoding the site-mutagenizedAAPK(K43A), also showed ABA-dependent autophosphorylation andABA-activated histone phosphorylation activity, however the relativelevels were significantly reduced as would be predicted from thesequence change.

ABA-Mediated Stomatal Aperture Regulation and Anion Channel Activationin AAPK Mutants. The transformed guard cells were identified by theirgreen fluorescence. Transformation with pAAPK(K43A)-GFP eliminatedABA-induced stomatal closure, but had no effect on stomatal closureinduced by CO₂ or darkness. Transformation with wild-type AAPK via thepAAPK-GFP vector had no measurable effect on either ABA-induced stomatalclosure nor on ABA-inhibition of stomatal opening.

In V. faba guard cells, ABA activated slow anion channels. Slow anioncurrents were identified by their characteristic time dependence, theirreversal potential and sensitivity to the anion channel blocker5-nitro-2-(3-phenylpropylamino)benzoic acid. Not only was the typicaldecay in anion current reversed over time in the whole-cellconfiguration, but ABA also increased the anion current magnitude. Inguard cells transformed with pGFP or pAAPK-GFP, anion currents wereregulated normally (activated) by ABA. In guard cells transformed withpAAPK(K43A)-GFP, however, ABA-activation of anion channels waseliminated.

It is likely that the K43A mutant kinase competes with the activity ofnative AAPK in a dominant negative fashion. First, the kinase inhibitorK-252a inhibits (i) native AAPK activity, (ii) ABA-induced stomatalclosure, and (iii) ABA regulation of anion channels in untransformedcells, implying that the channels are indeed normally regulated by AAPK.Second, although dominant abi1-1 and abi2-1 mutations in ABI and ABI2phosphatases confer ABA insensitivity to both anion channel activationand stomatal closure, recently identified recessive loss-of-functionmutations in ABI1 confer hypersensitivity to ABA. Thus, in wild-typeplants an AAPK may mediate ABA-induced anion channel activation andstomatal closure through a phosphorylation event, while ABI1 opposes ABAaction through a dephosphorylation event.

Neither wild-type nor mutant versions of recombinant AAPK affected ABAinhibition of stomatal opening ( Table 1). ABA inhibition of stomatalopening and ABA promotion of stomatal closure may, therefore, employdifferent signaling cascades. Alternatively, and in contrast to currenttheory, ABA activation of anion channels may not be required for ABAinhibition of stomatal opening.

Agronomically, loss of ABA-stimulated stomatal closure in plantstransformed with mutant AAPK under control of an inducible promotershould allow accelerated and controlled desiccation of crops that aredried before harvest or distribution. Basal levels of ABA remain even inirrigated crops; under these conditions, inhibition of AAPK activityshould alleviate stomatal limitation of CO₂ uptake, and thus accelerategrowth or increase yield.

TABLE 1 Overexpression of AAPK(K43A) in guard cells inhibits ABA-inducedstomatal closure. V. faba leaves were transformed and stomatal responsesmeasured. ABA treatment was 25 μM (for closure) or 50 μM (for opening)(±)-cis, trans-ABA, elevated CO₂ treatment was 700 ppm CO₂. Except forthe darkness treatment, peels were illuminated (0.20 mmol m⁻²s⁻¹ whitelight) for the duration of each treatment. All numbers represent thechange in half aperture of stomata as measured in micrometers. ND, notdetermined. Numbers in parentheses indicate sample sizes. GFP AAPK-GFPAAPK (K43A)-GFP Transformed Untransformed Transformed UntransformedTransformed Untransformed Closure ABA −2.52 ± 0.29 (36) −2.54 ± 0.35(36) −2.59 ± 0.30 (36) −2.58 ± 0.24 (36) −0.36 ± 0.26 (56)* −2.55 ± 0.21(56) Control 0.10 ± 0.09 (10) 0.09 ± 0.09 (10) 0.11 ± 0.10 (10) 0.12 ±0.10 (24) 0.12 ± 0.11 (10) 0.13 ± 0.10 (24) CO₂ ND ND ND ND −2.23 ± 0.44(36) −2.31 ± 0.46 (36) Control −0.09 ± 0.09 (10) −0.11 ± 0.10 (10)Darkness ND ND ND ND −2.08 ± 0.40 (36) −2.08 ± 0.46 (36) Control 0.12 ±0.11 (10) 0.13 ± 0.11 (10) Opening ABA 0.42 ± 0.22 (36) 0.45 ± 0.27 (36)0.43 ± 0.22 (36) 0.41 ± 0.28 (36) 0.42 ± 0.17 (46) 0.44 ± 0.15 (46)*Significantly different from Untransformed cells treated with ABA (P <0.001, Student's t test). Not significantly different from theAAPK(K43A)-GFP transformed ABA control (P > 0.05, Student's t test).

EXAMPLE 2 Identification of AAPK Genes from Arabidopsis thaliana

Screening. Standard methods known to those skilled in the art forscreening a genomic library were used. An Arabidopsis genomic libraryfrom CD4-8 Landsberg erecta from the Arabidopsis Biological ResourceCenter at Ohio State University was used.

The probe was the Nco I-Bgl II fragment (393 base pairs) of V. faba AAPKcDNA. The gel-purified Nco I-Bgl II fragment of AAPK cDNA was labeled by32P-dCTP. This probe corresponds to sequences encoding the region fromthe aspartic acid residue (position 2, SEQ ID NO:2) to the arginineresidue (position 132, SEQ ID NO:2) of the AAPK protein.

Nylon membranes containing the library were prehybridized with 5×SSC, 5×Denhardt's solution, 1% SDS, and 0.2% nonfat milk at 60 C for 2 hoursand then hybridized in the same solution with the labeled probe at 60 Covernight. The membranes were washed with 2×SSC and 0.1% SDS twice for15 minutes at 60 C, once in 2×SSC and 0.1% SDS, and once in 0.5×SSC and0.1% SDS. The membranes were exposed to X-ray films and positive plaqueswere identified by autoradiography.

The positive clones were subcloned into pCR BlueScript vector and thenanalyzed by DNA sequencing and compared to known sequences to look formatches.

Data Mining. The BLAST program of the National Center for BiologicalInformation (NCBI) was used with the blastx option to search the nr(nonredundant) databases of GenBank, EMBL and DDBJ for matches with AAPKsequence data. The parameters used for the search were: expect value,10; matrix, BLOSUM62; filter, low complexity.

Results. Two independent genomic clones were identified from thescreening of the Arabidopsis library. Sequencing and subsequent databasesearches established that these sequences originated from sequencesembodied respectively in GenBank Accession Numbers L05562 and ProteinIdentification Accession Number CAA19877. The data mining with the AAPKcDNA sequence corroborated the results obtained through screening of thegenomic library. In addition, the database search revealed another,equally homologous, Arabidopsis nucleic acid sequence, comprising thesequences embodied in GenBank Accession Number L05561. The L05561sequences correspond to a region within the Arabidopsis BAC cloneALO31032 of chromosome 4.

Sequence comparisons revealed that the predicted polypeptide encoded byL05562 has 75.4% identity with the amino acid sequence encoded by the V.faba AAPK cDNA, and the nucleotide sequence has 67.9% identity to thenucleotide sequence of the V. faba. AAPK cDNA. The predicted polypeptideencoded by CAA19877 has 77.5% identity with the deduced V. faba AAPKamino acid sequence, and the nucleotide sequence is 68.7% identical tothe nucleic acid sequence of V. faba AAPK cDNA. Various alignments andadditional information regarding sequence identity are set forth inFIGS. 2-4.

The present invention is not limited to the embodiments described andexemplified above, but is capable of variation and modification withoutdeparture from the scope of the appended claims.

1-25. (canceled)
 26. A genetically altered plant possessing increasedsensitivity to ABA-induced stomatal closure as compared with anequivalent but unaltered plant, comprising an AAPK that is increased inamount or activity as compared with the unaltered plant.
 27. Thegenetically altered plant of claim 26, produced by subjecting apopulation of plants to mutagenesis and selecting a mutagenized plantwherein the AAPK is largely nonfunctional or absent.
 28. The geneticallyaltered plant of claim 26, produced by transforming cells of the plantwith a transgene that causes the plant's endogenous AAPK to becomelargely nonfunctional or absent, and regenerating the plant from thetransformed cells.
 29. The genetically altered plant of claim 28,wherein expression of the transgene is inducible. 30-37. (canceled) 38.A method to decrease transpiration in a plant comprising increasingamount or activity of an AAPK in guard cells of the plant, therebyincreasing sensitivity of the plant to ABA-induced stomatal closure,resulting in the decreased transpiration.
 39. The method of claim 38,wherein the AAPK amount or activity is increased by the addition of atleast one transgene to the plant genome.
 40. A fertile plant produced bythe method of claim 38.